Transportation experts estimate that autonomous vehicles could reduce traffic accidents by 90%, cut commute times by 40%, decrease parking requirements by 60%, and free up urban land equivalent to entire city blocks currently devoted to storing idle vehicles. Yet realizing these benefits demands infrastructure investments that most cities haven't begun planning, much less budgeting for. According to recent municipal finance studies, preparing roadway infrastructure for autonomous vehicle deployment requires investments ranging from $500,000 to $2.5 million per lane-mile depending on existing conditions and desired capability levels. For a medium-sized city with 500 lane-miles of major roadways, that translates to potential infrastructure expenditures between $250 million and $1.25 billion before a single autonomous vehicle operates on public streets. These aren't abstract future considerations; they're immediate planning challenges as companies like Waymo, Cruise, Tesla, and traditional automakers accelerate autonomous technology deployment across North America, Europe, and beyond.
Understanding Autonomous Vehicle Infrastructure Requirements 🚗
Digital Road Marking and Machine-Readable Signage
Autonomous vehicles navigate using sophisticated sensor arrays including cameras, radar, and lidar that detect lane boundaries, traffic signs, and road features. However, these systems perform optimally only when infrastructure meets specific standards that weren't contemplated when most roads were built. Lane markings must maintain minimum retroreflectivity values significantly higher than traditional standards, typically 250 millicandelas per lux per square meter compared to conventional minimums of 100. Paint must contain glass beads or ceramic particles that reflect light consistently across various weather conditions and viewing angles, enabling cameras to detect boundaries reliably in rain, fog, and low-light conditions.
The city of Columbus, Ohio, winner of the U.S. Department of Transportation's Smart City Challenge, invested $12 million in roadway remarking across 150 centerline miles specifically to support autonomous vehicle testing and deployment. Their experience revealed that standard marking maintenance cycles of 3-5 years proved insufficient for autonomous vehicle requirements, with optimal performance demanding 18-24 month remarking intervals. According to The Guardian's reporting on smart infrastructure investments, Columbus discovered that proactive marking maintenance actually reduced costs compared to reactive approaches because vehicles performed more predictably on well-marked roads, reducing the frequency of cautious slowdowns that cascaded into broader traffic disruptions affecting both autonomous and human-driven vehicles.
High-Definition Mapping and Localization Infrastructure
Autonomous vehicles rely on centimeter-accurate maps that document not just road geometry but surface conditions, grade changes, drainage features, utility covers, and thousands of other details invisible on traditional GPS navigation maps. Creating and maintaining these high-definition maps requires specialized mobile mapping vehicles equipped with survey-grade positioning systems and multiple sensor arrays that capture geometric and visual data. Cities must establish processes for updating maps whenever roadway configurations change due to construction, restriping, new signage, or infrastructure modifications that could confuse autonomous vehicle navigation systems.
The Lagos Metropolitan Area Transport Authority (LAMATA) faces unique challenges as Lagos considers future autonomous vehicle integration. The city's roadway infrastructure changes rapidly with frequent construction projects, informal market encroachment onto roadways, and variable pavement conditions that would require exceptionally robust mapping update processes. While full autonomous vehicle deployment remains years away for Lagos, forward-thinking infrastructure investments today—standardized signage, consistent lane marking practices, and digital asset inventories—create foundations that reduce future adaptation costs while delivering immediate benefits for human drivers and conventional traffic management systems.
Connected Infrastructure and Vehicle-to-Everything Communication
The next generation of autonomous vehicles will communicate directly with infrastructure through Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) or Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (C-V2X) technologies, receiving real-time information about signal timing, upcoming hazards, road conditions, and coordinating movements with other vehicles. This requires cities to install roadside communication units at intersections and along corridors, integrate these systems with traffic signal controllers, and establish cybersecurity protocols that prevent malicious actors from sending false information that could endanger road users.
Ann Arbor, Michigan, deployed America's largest connected vehicle testbed with over 2,800 equipped vehicles and 75 roadside communication stations covering 27 square kilometers. Their $25 million infrastructure investment enabled groundbreaking research on how vehicle-infrastructure communication improves safety and traffic flow. Data showed that connected infrastructure reduced intersection conflicts by 23% and enabled traffic signal optimization that improved throughput by 15% even before fully autonomous vehicles entered the mix. As reported by Forbes on transportation innovation, Ann Arbor's experience demonstrated that connected infrastructure delivers incremental benefits throughout deployment rather than requiring complete system implementation before value emerges, making phased investment strategies financially and politically viable.
Financial Planning and Investment Strategies 💰
Quantifying Infrastructure Investment Requirements
Cities must develop comprehensive inventories assessing current infrastructure against autonomous vehicle requirements to estimate upgrade costs accurately. This assessment should evaluate pavement marking quality and retroreflectivity across all roadways prioritized for autonomous vehicle operations, traffic signal infrastructure and upgrade requirements for connected vehicle communication, lighting adequacy for camera-based perception systems, signage condition and machine-readability, roadside vegetation management affecting sensor line-of-sight, and communication infrastructure for data transmission between roadside equipment and traffic management centers.
A typical metropolitan area assessment reveals a sobering reality: 40-60% of major arterial miles require marking upgrades, 30-50% of traffic signals need controller replacements or software updates to support connected vehicle protocols, and 15-25% of roadway segments have visibility or geometric deficiencies requiring remediation. For a city like Calgary with approximately 16,000 lane-kilometers of roadway, comprehensive autonomous vehicle infrastructure preparation could require investments approaching $400-600 million over a decade, though strategic prioritization focusing on high-traffic corridors where autonomous vehicles will initially concentrate can reduce near-term requirements to more manageable $50-80 million across 3-5 year implementation horizons.
Case Study: Singapore's Autonomous Vehicle Infrastructure Strategy
Singapore has committed over $1 billion to preparing infrastructure for autonomous vehicle deployment as part of their comprehensive smart nation initiative. Their approach emphasizes strategic corridor development, initially focusing on three districts encompassing approximately 120 kilometers of roadways rather than attempting citywide infrastructure transformation simultaneously. This phased strategy allows concentrated investment where autonomous vehicles will operate first, generating operational data that informs subsequent expansion decisions while managing financial requirements within realistic budget constraints.
Singapore's infrastructure investments include next-generation traffic signals with vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, 5G communication networks providing high-bandwidth connectivity for real-time data exchange, enhanced roadway lighting optimized for both human drivers and autonomous vehicle sensors, comprehensive digital mapping updated continuously as infrastructure changes, and dedicated autonomous vehicle lanes on selected expressways that reduce interaction complexity with conventional traffic. According to Reuters' analysis of urban autonomy initiatives, Singapore's methodical approach has attracted substantial private sector investment from autonomous vehicle developers who value the certainty that comes from committed public infrastructure preparation, demonstrating how public investment catalyzes complementary private capital that accelerates overall ecosystem development.
Public-Private Partnership Models for Infrastructure Funding
The substantial capital requirements for autonomous vehicle infrastructure have inspired innovative public-private partnership structures that align incentives between municipalities and autonomous vehicle operators. One emerging model involves autonomous vehicle companies contributing infrastructure upgrade costs along designated service corridors in exchange for operational priority or exclusive access during initial deployment phases. This approach transfers some financial burden to private entities benefiting directly from infrastructure improvements while ensuring public agencies maintain oversight over infrastructure standards and long-term maintenance responsibilities.
The city of Tampa, Florida, structured a pioneering partnership where autonomous shuttle operator BEEP contributed $2 million toward roadside communication infrastructure, enhanced crosswalk markings, and dedicated pick-up/drop-off zones along a 5-kilometer route connecting downtown with the waterfront district. The city retained infrastructure ownership and maintenance responsibility while BEEP gained exclusive autonomous vehicle operating rights for three years, after which other operators could access the corridor without infrastructure contribution requirements. This model generated infrastructure improvements the city couldn't immediately afford while fostering autonomous vehicle service development that would have been delayed or eliminated without infrastructure preparation. As covered by The Financial Times' urban technology section, similar partnership structures are being explored in over 30 North American and European cities seeking to accelerate autonomous vehicle deployment without shouldering entire infrastructure costs through traditional public funding mechanisms.
Technical Standards and Interoperability Requirements 🔧
Establishing Municipal Autonomous Vehicle Infrastructure Standards
Cities must develop clear technical specifications defining infrastructure requirements for autonomous vehicle operations to ensure consistent implementation across departments, contractors, and jurisdictions. These standards should specify minimum lane marking retroreflectivity values and maintenance frequencies, traffic signal communication protocols and cybersecurity requirements, roadway lighting intensity and uniformity for camera-based perception, signage size, placement, and retroreflectivity characteristics, and acceptable roadway geometric standards including curve radii, grade changes, and intersection configurations that autonomous vehicles can navigate reliably.
London's Transport for London established comprehensive Connected and Autonomous Vehicle Infrastructure Standards in collaboration with autonomous vehicle developers, infrastructure contractors, and university researchers. Their 200-page specification document provides detailed guidance on every infrastructure element affecting autonomous vehicle performance, from pavement marking materials to communication network latency requirements. Importantly, these standards explicitly permit multiple technology approaches rather than mandating specific vendors or proprietary systems, fostering competitive markets while ensuring interoperability. According to BBC's coverage of London's autonomous vehicle preparations, this standards-based approach attracted broader industry participation because companies could invest confidently knowing infrastructure would support their technologies without requiring exclusive partnerships or facing vendor lock-in that might preclude future market entry.
Interoperability Across Jurisdictions
Autonomous vehicles don't respect municipal boundaries, so infrastructure preparation must consider regional coordination ensuring vehicles can operate seamlessly as they traverse between jurisdictions. This requires metropolitan planning organizations to facilitate coordination among cities, counties, and state transportation departments, establishing consistent standards that prevent autonomous vehicles from encountering infrastructure discontinuities at jurisdictional boundaries. The Greater Toronto Area's autonomous vehicle infrastructure working group coordinates among 24 municipalities, the Province of Ontario, and federal agencies, ensuring consistent approaches to roadway marking, traffic signal communication, and data-sharing protocols across the entire metropolitan region.
Which autonomous vehicle infrastructure element deserves priority investment in your city?
- Enhanced roadway markings and signage for vehicle navigation
- Connected traffic signals and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication
- High-definition mapping and continuous map update systems
- Dedicated autonomous vehicle lanes and optimized corridors
Safety Considerations and Liability Frameworks ⚖️
Infrastructure Liability in the Autonomous Era
Autonomous vehicle deployment introduces complex liability questions when crashes occur involving road features that confused vehicle sensors or inadequate infrastructure that contributed to navigation errors. If an autonomous vehicle fails to detect a faded lane marking and drifts into an adjacent lane causing a collision, who bears responsibility—the vehicle manufacturer, the operating company, or the city that failed to maintain markings to autonomous vehicle standards? These questions lack clear legal precedents, creating risk exposure for municipalities that could face litigation claiming inadequate infrastructure contributed to crashes.
Progressive cities are addressing these concerns through formal autonomous vehicle readiness assessments that document infrastructure conditions against established standards, creating records demonstrating reasonable infrastructure management practices. Some jurisdictions are requiring autonomous vehicle operators to carry enhanced liability insurance that explicitly covers infrastructure-related incidents, while others are pursuing state legislative frameworks that clarify liability allocation between vehicle operators and infrastructure owners. The city of Phoenix requires autonomous vehicle operators to maintain $5 million in liability coverage and indemnify the city against infrastructure-related claims, transferring legal risk to companies operating vehicles while protecting municipal finances from potentially catastrophic liability judgments.
Infrastructure Safety Audits for Autonomous Vehicle Operations
Roadway features that human drivers navigate intuitively can confuse autonomous vehicle perception systems, creating safety hazards that require infrastructure modifications. Concrete barriers with reflective properties that appear similar to lane markings have caused autonomous vehicles to track incorrectly, while certain bridge structures create GPS signal interference that degrades vehicle localization accuracy. Systematic infrastructure safety audits identifying these edge cases before autonomous vehicle deployment can prevent crashes while documenting due diligence that protects cities from liability exposure.
The Lagos State Traffic Management Authority (LASTMA) would face distinctive challenges conducting autonomous vehicle infrastructure assessments given Lagos's unique roadway characteristics including variable pavement conditions, informal roadside commerce, and mixed traffic including pedestrians, motorcycles, and commercial vehicles sharing roadways in patterns unfamiliar to autonomous systems developed in Western contexts. While full autonomous vehicle deployment remains distant for Lagos, understanding these infrastructure requirements can inform current roadway improvement projects, ensuring investments made today remain compatible with future technologies rather than requiring premature replacement when autonomous vehicles eventually arrive.
Case Studies: Cities Leading Infrastructure Preparation 🌍
Milton Keynes, UK: Purpose-Built Autonomous Vehicle Infrastructure
Milton Keynes has distinguished itself by designing new infrastructure developments specifically to accommodate autonomous vehicles from inception rather than retrofitting existing roadways. Their MK:Smart initiative created a 20-kilometer autonomous vehicle demonstration zone featuring dedicated pathways segregated from conventional traffic, optimized roadway geometry with consistent lane widths and curve radii, comprehensive fiber-optic communication infrastructure, and standardized traffic calming features that autonomous vehicles navigate predictably.
This greenfield approach revealed that purpose-designing infrastructure for autonomous vehicles costs approximately 8-12% more than conventional construction but delivers substantially better performance and safety outcomes compared to retrofit scenarios. Milton Keynes documented 40% fewer autonomous vehicle navigation errors and 60% higher average speeds on purpose-built infrastructure compared to retrofitted conventional roadways, demonstrating the long-term value of incorporating autonomous vehicle requirements into initial infrastructure design rather than treating them as afterthoughts requiring expensive modifications.
Dubai's Autonomous Transportation Strategy
Dubai announced an ambitious goal of converting 25% of all transportation trips to autonomous vehicles by 2030, backed by $5 billion in infrastructure investments preparing the emirate for large-scale autonomous vehicle deployment. Their strategy emphasizes dedicated autonomous vehicle lanes on major highways that provide controlled environments minimizing interaction complexity with conventional traffic, smart intersection infrastructure with vehicle-to-infrastructure communication throughout the urban core, comprehensive 5G coverage supporting high-bandwidth data transmission for autonomous vehicle operations, and regulatory frameworks explicitly addressing autonomous vehicle testing, deployment, and liability allocation.
Dubai's Roads and Transport Authority established a dedicated Autonomous Vehicle Infrastructure Office with 40 engineering professionals focused exclusively on preparing roadway infrastructure for autonomous operations. According to The Guardian's reporting on Middle Eastern smart city initiatives, this institutional commitment with clear accountability and adequate resourcing has accelerated implementation timelines compared to cities where autonomous vehicle infrastructure preparation competes for attention and resources with numerous other transportation priorities managed by generalist staff juggling multiple responsibilities.
Lessons from Early Deployment Cities
Cities at the forefront of autonomous vehicle infrastructure preparation have learned valuable lessons that inform more effective approaches for jurisdictions beginning this journey. First, incremental phased deployment focusing on strategic corridors delivers better outcomes than attempting comprehensive citywide preparation simultaneously. Second, infrastructure investments provide immediate benefits for human-driven vehicles through improved markings, optimized signals, and better-maintained roadways, making investments justifiable even if autonomous vehicle deployment timelines extend longer than initially projected. Third, private sector engagement through public-private partnerships can accelerate implementation while managing public sector financial exposure. Fourth, regional coordination preventing jurisdictional infrastructure discontinuities proves essential for autonomous vehicle operations that naturally cross municipal boundaries.
Regulatory Frameworks and Policy Considerations 📋
Establishing Autonomous Vehicle Operating Permits
Cities must develop regulatory frameworks governing where and how autonomous vehicles can operate on public roadways, balancing innovation encouragement with public safety protection. Permit systems typically require autonomous vehicle operators to demonstrate vehicles meet minimum technical capabilities, carry adequate insurance coverage, provide data-sharing regarding operations and any safety incidents, maintain local emergency contact protocols for rapid response if issues arise, and submit to periodic safety audits verifying continued compliance with operating requirements.
The California Department of Motor Vehicles pioneered autonomous vehicle permit regulations that have influenced frameworks adopted across North America and Europe. Their tiered permit structure distinguishes between testing with safety drivers present, testing without safety drivers, and commercial deployment, with progressively stricter requirements at each level. This graduated approach allows technology maturation through controlled testing before exposing the general public to fully driverless operations, while transparent reporting requirements enable regulators to monitor safety performance and intervene if unacceptable risks emerge.
Data Sharing and Privacy Considerations
Autonomous vehicles generate enormous data volumes about roadway conditions, traffic patterns, infrastructure deficiencies, and system performance that could inform better transportation planning and infrastructure investment decisions. However, this data may also contain personally identifiable information about individual travel patterns raising privacy concerns that must be addressed through clear policies governing data collection, retention, and use.
Toronto's data governance framework for autonomous vehicle operations requires companies to share anonymized aggregate data about roadway conditions and system performance while prohibiting retention or sharing of individual trip-level data that could identify specific travelers. This balanced approach enables public benefit from data insights while protecting privacy rights, though implementation challenges remain around technical anonymization methods and enforcement mechanisms ensuring compliance. As noted in a Punch Newspapers report on smart city governance, Lagos State is developing similar data governance frameworks for smart transportation initiatives, recognizing that digital technology deployment requires clear policies protecting citizen privacy while enabling data-driven decision-making that improves public services.
Future-Proofing Infrastructure Investments 🔮
Designing for Technological Evolution
Autonomous vehicle technology continues evolving rapidly, with sensor capabilities, processing power, and navigation algorithms improving continuously. Infrastructure investments made today must remain relevant as technology advances rather than becoming obsolete as next-generation systems deploy with different requirements. This demands flexible, technology-agnostic approaches that establish performance standards rather than mandating specific technical solutions that might not represent optimal approaches within five years.
Open architecture communication systems that support multiple protocols rather than locking into proprietary standards, modular infrastructure components that enable upgrades without complete replacement, and performance-based specifications defining required outcomes without prescribing implementation methods create adaptable infrastructure ecosystems that accommodate technology evolution. The city of Austin, Texas, explicitly designed their connected vehicle infrastructure using software-defined networking that allows protocol updates through configuration changes rather than hardware replacement, protecting their $40 million infrastructure investment against technological obsolescence.
Integration with Broader Smart City Initiatives
Autonomous vehicle infrastructure shouldn't be planned in isolation but rather integrated with comprehensive smart city strategies encompassing intelligent traffic management, multimodal transportation coordination, environmental monitoring, and digital service delivery. Communication networks installed for autonomous vehicle support can simultaneously carry traffic monitoring data, environmental sensors, public WiFi, and smart streetlight controls, distributing infrastructure costs across multiple beneficiaries while creating synergies between complementary systems.
Barcelona's superblock initiative integrated autonomous shuttle infrastructure with comprehensive street redesign that prioritized pedestrians and cyclists, enhanced urban greening, and created vibrant public spaces. The autonomous shuttles serve first-mile/last-mile connections between superblock perimeters and metro stations, demonstrating how autonomous vehicles complement rather than replace other transportation modes within holistic mobility ecosystems. According to Reuters' coverage of integrated urban planning, Barcelona's integrated approach generated broader political support because autonomous vehicle infrastructure investments delivered multiple community benefits beyond simply accommodating new vehicle technology, making expenditures easier to justify to taxpayers questioning whether cities should subsidize private technology companies through public infrastructure spending.
Economic Development and Competitiveness Implications 💼
Attracting Autonomous Vehicle Industry Investment
Cities with autonomous vehicle-ready infrastructure attract testing programs, pilot deployments, and eventually commercial operations that generate economic development through high-wage technology jobs, ancillary business services, and positioning as innovation leaders. The autonomous vehicle industry represents a multi-hundred-billion-dollar economic opportunity, and cities competing for this investment recognize that infrastructure readiness significantly influences where companies locate operations, conduct testing, and deploy commercial services.
Pittsburgh transformed from a declining industrial city to an autonomous vehicle innovation hub partly through Carnegie Mellon University's robotics research but substantially through proactive city infrastructure investments that made roadways autonomous-vehicle-ready before competitors. This early infrastructure commitment attracted Uber's Advanced Technologies Group, Argo AI, Aurora, and dozens of autonomous vehicle suppliers that collectively employ thousands of highly-paid engineers and technicians. According to an analysis by The Guardian on post-industrial urban transformation, Pittsburgh's autonomous vehicle cluster generates over $500 million in annual economic activity and has catalyzed broader technology sector growth as the city's reputation as an innovation hub attracts companies across various technology domains seeking talent-rich environments with forward-thinking local governments.
Workforce Development and Training Requirements
Autonomous vehicle infrastructure deployment creates demand for specialized technical skills in traffic engineering, communication networks, cybersecurity, data analytics, and systems integration. Cities must invest in workforce development ensuring local contractors, municipal employees, and regional businesses can participate in this emerging sector rather than importing all expertise from outside. Community colleges, technical institutes, and university partnerships can develop curricula providing training pathways for careers in autonomous vehicle infrastructure installation, maintenance, and operations.
The Federal Airports Authority of Nigeria (FAAN) has experience managing complex technical infrastructure requiring specialized skills that could inform approaches to autonomous vehicle workforce development as this technology eventually reaches Nigeria. Understanding that major infrastructure technology deployments demand deliberate workforce planning can help cities like Lagos prepare for eventual autonomous vehicle arrival, developing technical capabilities through current infrastructure modernization projects that create foundations for future technology adoption.
Frequently Asked Questions
How soon will autonomous vehicles require cities to upgrade infrastructure?
Timeline varies significantly by region, but major North American and European cities should plan infrastructure upgrades within 3-5 year horizons if they want to accommodate expanding autonomous vehicle deployments. Some cities already have autonomous vehicles operating commercially, while others may not see significant deployments for a decade or more. Rather than waiting for certainty, progressive cities are implementing infrastructure improvements that benefit conventional vehicles immediately while positioning for autonomous vehicle readiness when opportunities arise.
Can cities require autonomous vehicle companies to pay for infrastructure upgrades?
Cities can certainly negotiate cost-sharing through operating permits, franchise agreements, or public-private partnerships, though approaches must consider competitive dynamics among jurisdictions seeking autonomous vehicle investment. Excessive financial demands may simply drive companies to operate in neighboring cities with more accommodating policies. Balanced approaches sharing costs between public and private sectors aligned with benefits captured by each party tend to generate better outcomes than one-sided arrangements.
What happens to infrastructure investments if autonomous vehicles don't deploy as quickly as projected?
This represents a legitimate risk that cities should mitigate through infrastructure improvements that deliver value independent of autonomous vehicle adoption timelines. Enhanced roadway markings improve safety for human drivers, connected traffic signals optimize flow for conventional vehicles, and communication infrastructure supports numerous smart city applications beyond autonomous vehicles. Well-planned infrastructure investments provide immediate benefits while positioning for future technology adoption rather than creating stranded assets if timelines extend.
Do autonomous vehicles require completely separated infrastructure or can they share roads with conventional vehicles?
Current autonomous vehicle deployments operate on conventional roads shared with human-driven vehicles, though some cities are exploring dedicated lanes for specific corridors. Long-term visions may include fully separated autonomous vehicle roadways in some contexts, but near-term deployments will predominantly involve mixed traffic environments. Infrastructure preparation focuses on ensuring autonomous vehicles can operate safely in these mixed conditions rather than requiring complete separation that would be prohibitively expensive and spatially impractical in dense urban environments.
How do cities measure return on investment for autonomous vehicle infrastructure?
ROI measurement should consider multiple benefit categories including safety improvements from reduced crashes, congestion reduction through more efficient vehicle operations, environmental benefits from optimized driving patterns, economic development from attracting autonomous vehicle industry investment, and property value appreciation in well-connected neighborhoods. Comprehensive benefit-cost analyses typically show positive returns within 8-15 years when all benefit categories are monetized, though exact timelines depend on deployment rates and local circumstances.
The autonomous vehicle revolution isn't arriving on some distant horizon; it's unfolding right now on streets in Phoenix, San Francisco, Singapore, and dozens of other cities worldwide. The question facing urban leaders isn't whether autonomous vehicles will transform transportation but whether their cities will proactively prepare infrastructure to capture benefits or reactively scramble to catch up after opportunities have shifted to better-prepared competitors. Infrastructure investments made today shape transportation systems for decades, and cities incorporating autonomous vehicle requirements into current planning and capital programs are positioning themselves for sustainable mobility futures that improve quality of life while strengthening economic competitiveness.
What infrastructure challenges does your city face in preparing for autonomous vehicles? Are local officials discussing these investments, or does autonomous vehicle readiness remain off the planning radar? Share your perspectives in the comments and help build the conversation about how communities can prepare for transformative transportation technologies. If this guide provided valuable insights, share it with city officials, transportation planners, and community leaders who need to understand the infrastructure implications of the autonomous vehicle revolution that's already beginning.
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